The Disease Lung Cancer - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 2 Words: 729 Downloads: 1 Date added: 2019/10/30 Category Medicine Essay Level High school Tags: Lung Cancer Essay Did you like this example? Lung Cancer begins when cells in your body start to mutate or change. There are many factors that can cause these mutations to happen. Most often, this change in the cells happen when people are exposed too and or breathe in dangerous and toxic substances. Even if you were exposed to these substances many years ago, you are still at risk (NCBI, 2011). There are many treatment options and support offered to those who are diagnosed. Etiology of Lung Cancer Smoking is the number one cause of lung cancer. Tobacco smoke contains many chemicals that are known to cause lung cancer. Radon exposure is the second-leading cause of lung cancer. Radon is a colorless, odorless radioactive gas that exists naturally in soil. It comes up through the soil and enters buildings through small gaps and cracks. One out of every 15 homes in the U.S. is subject to radon exposure. Exposure to radon combined with cigarette smoking seriously increases your lung cancer risk. Exposure to certain hazardous chemicals poses a lung cancer risk. Working with materials such as asbestos, uranium, arsenic, cadmium, chromium, nickel and some petroleum products is especially dangerous. Particle Pollution refers to a mix of very tiny solid and liquid particles that are in the air we breathe. Evidence shows that particle pollution†like that coming from that exhaust smoke†increases the risk of lung cancer. Finally, the last cause of lung cancer is through genes. G enetic factors also may play a role in ones chances of developing lung cancer. A family history of lung cancer may mean you are at a higher risk of getting the disease. (American Lung Association, 2018) Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The Disease: Lung Cancer" essay for you Create order Clinical features of Lung Cancer The Signs and symptoms of lung cancer can take years to develop and they may not appear until the disease is advanced. Symptoms of lung cancer that are in the chest include; coughing, especially if it persists or becomes intense; Pain in the chest, shoulder, or back; A change in color or volume of sputum; Shortness in breath, Changes in the voice or being hoarse, Harsh sound with each breath (stridor), Recurrent lung problems, such as bronchitis or pneumonia, Coughing up phlegm or mucus, especially if it is tinged with blood and or coughing up blood. If the original lung cancer has spread, a person may feel symptoms in other places in the body. Common places for lung cancer to spread include other parts of the lungs, lymph nodes, bones, brain, liver, and adrenal glands. Symptoms of Lung cancer that many occur elsewhere in the body include; Loss of appetite or unexplained weight loss, muscle wasting (also known as cachexia), fatigue, headaches and or bone and joint pain, Bone fracture s, neurological symptoms, such as unsteady gait and or memory loss. Other symptoms include neck or facial swelling, general weakness, bleeding and or blood clots. (CDC, 2018) Lab Data There are several laboratory tests that may be done during the diagnosis and staging of lung cancer. These tests are any procedure that evaluates a sample of blood, urine, other bodily fluid, and or tissue. While there is not a single test that can determine if a person has lung cancer, it can provide additional information that helps doctors determine the best treatment for the patient. A complete blood count is a test that measures all different components in the blood. Blood is made up of many different cells: red and white blood cells, and platelets. Abnormal findings from a CBC include; low levels of red blood cells that can indicate anemia, low levels of blood platelets can point to a tendency to bleed and difficulty forming clots. Also, low levels of white blood cells can place a person at higher risk for infections. Blood Chemistry is another test that detects levels of substance in the body can identify abnormalities in some of the organs. (Lung Cancer, Laboratory Tests, 201 7) Red cell distribution width (RDW), one of many routinely examined parameters, shows the heterogeneity in erythrocyte size. We investigated the association of RDW levels with clinical parameters and prognosis of lung cancer patients. Clinical and laboratory data from 332 patients with lung cancer in a single institution were retrospectively studied by univariate analysis. Kaplan-Meier survival analysis and Cox proportional hazard models were used to examine the effect of RDW on survival. THE RDW LEVELS WERE DIVIDED INTO TWO GROUPS: high RDW (=15%), n=73 vs. low RDW, n=259 (15%). Univariate analysis showed that there were significant associations of high RDW values with cancer stage, performance status, presence of other disease, white blood cell count, hemoglobin, mean corpuscular volume, platelet count, albumin level, C-reactive protein level, and cytokeratin 19 fragment level. Kruskal-Wallis tests revealed an association of RDW values with cancer stage in patients irrespective of co morbidity (patient with/without comorbidity: p0.0001, patient without comorbidity: p0.0001). Stages I-IV lung cancer patients with higher RDW values had poorer prognoses than those with lower RDW values (Wilcoxon test: p=0.002). In particular, the survival rates of stage I and II patients (n=141) were lower in the high RDW group (n=19) than in the low RDW group (n=122) (Wilcoxon test: p0.001). Moreover, multivariate analysis showed higher RDW is a significant prognostic factor (p=0.040). RDW is associated with several factors that reflect inflammation and malnutrition in lung cancer patients. Moreover, high levels of RDW are associated with poor survival. RDW might be used as a new and convenient marker to determine a patient's general condition and to predict the mortality risk of lung cancer patients. (PLOS, Koma, Onishi, Matsuoka, Oda, Yokota, Matsumoto, Koyama, Okada, Nakashima, etc, 2013) Diagnostic Evaluations There are many procedures utilized to identify lung cancer. The first evaluation is an X-ray. A chest X-ray uses high-energy electromagnetic radiation to provide images of the lungs and surrounding tissues. This image-guided technology is an important procedure for cancer diagnosis, staging and treatment. Another type is a CT scan for lung cancer. Computed tomography (CT) scan is one of the most commonly used tools for screening, diagnosis and treatment of cancer. A CT scan reveals the anatomy of the lungs and surrounding tissues, which cancer doctors use to diagnose and monitor tumor growth. Lab tests for lung cancer are compiled of three separate tests. First, we have Genomic tumor assessment, which examines a tumor on a genetic level to find the DNA alterations that are driving the growth of cancer. By identifying the mutations that occur in a cancer cells genome, we can better understand what caused the tumor and tailor treatment based on these findings. Second, we have Tumor molecular profiling. If a patient has a solid tumor, doctors will try to get a sample of tissue during a biopsy or surgery. Then, they will test for the presence of a variety of enzymes, proteins and genes to identify which therapies may help. The final part of lab tests is Nutrition panel. With this test, doctors evaluate patients for deficiency of nutrients, such as vitamin D and iron. The test helps the doctors identify what nutrients patients need replaced or boosted. In order or all of these tests to be completed, a doctor will collect a blood sample, and then send it to a pathologist. A CT angiogram is another form of an evaluation. A CT angiogram allows doctors to examine the pulmonary artery, which is the main artery that supplies blood to the lungs from the heart. In this test, a special iodine-based contrast material in injected into the body before a CT scan to illuminate the pulmonary artery and smaller blood vessels in the chest. A CT angiogram is done when a patient is experiencing shortness of breath. A PET/CT scan for lung cancer is another form of evaluation. A PET/CT scan is an advanced nuclear imaging technique combines positron emission tomography (PET) and computed tomography (CT) into one machine. The scan reveals information about both the structure and functions of cells and tissues in the body during a single imaging session. The scan creates a 3D picture of the lungs, but it may miss small tumors if part of the lung has collapsed, as it sometimes the case. A PET scan goes beyond anatomy to show what is happening at a cellular level in the tiss ues of the lung. Biopsy for lung cancer is another form of evaluation that doctors use. During a lung biopsy procedure, the doctor removes a small piece of tissue or fluid from the chest, so it can be examined under a microscope to check for cancer cells. If the cells are found to be cancerous, a biopsy may help determine whether the cancer began at the site of the biopsy or if it started somewhere else in the body and spread to the biopsy site. Endobronchial ultrasound (EBUS) for lung cancer is a less invasive bronchoscopic procedure used to evaluate and sample cancerous cells in the chest. In most cases, EBUS is performed as an alternative to a mediastinoscopy, a surgical procedure used to collect samples in the chest while the patient is under general anesthesia. An EBUS uses ultrasound guidance to detect cancerous cells in the lungs and in the lymph nodes of the chest in real time. Autofluorescence bronchoscopy for lung cancer allows physicians to identify cancerous cells in the bronchial tubes that may not be visible under white light examination. The doctor can then remove a small sample of abnormal tissue for further analysis. This method is used to find and diagnose tiny tumors. For the procedure, the doctor will insert a scope through your mouth or nose and into your lungs. Then, a video camera and two different light sources will give the doctor a view of the patients airways. (Cancer Center, 2017) Treatments for Lung Cancer Although there is no cure for lung cancer, there are several treatment options for this disease. The most common treatments are radiation, surgery and chemotherapy. Other treatments include; Immunotherapy, Neurosurgery, targeted therapy, interventional pulmonology and metastatic lung cancer to the liver. For everyone these treatments, there is a community of people to help you along the way. CancerCare has partnered with LUNGevtiy to develop a cancer helpline. There is financial assistance for those who cannot afford treatments. Connect with others in free support groups, either online or face to face. Community resources are available for those who need it. (CancerCare, help by diagnosis, 2016)

Women in a Man’s World Why it’s Hard for Women to Get...

In February, the third annual Status of Women in the U.S. Media report came out which showed women being vast underrepresented in media making up around 40.3% (only 36.3% for 2013 in newsrooms) of the workforce being women. When they tallied up how many women were staffed at both television and print journalism organizations who were hired as sports journalist, the number falls drastically to a mere 14.6% (Women’s Media Center). These numbers are troubling, because although they are most likely more than there were 20 years ago, the percentage is lower than 15%. And even so if it is growing, instead of counting women sports journalist by craft, they are measured in the â€Å"sexiness,† or â€Å"hotness,† which I as a women, only know†¦show more content†¦Although ESPN hiring rate for women seems to be the highest in the sports business, it’s very hard to get there if you have no encouragement from peers. Authors Marie Hardin and Stacie Shain explain this phenomenon once women get hired, how discouraging it can be in the work place when your peer’s don’t see you as their equal of value what you bring to the news team: â€Å"women sports journalists instead often strive to fit in a male-dominated environment, knowing they are often under scrutiny by male sports journalists who may resent their presence as ‘‘quota’’ hires (Kian, 2005). Women sports journalists who may be considered more qualified than male rivals may still find themselves locked into limiting roles ‘‘for the sake of that body’’ and unable to move from it, (Hardin and Shain, 326).† Hearing over and over that it’s hard to become a female sportscaster, then when you are in the job not elevating or moving forward because of your gender is one of the most discriminating things that can happen to a journalist. It’s as if you put in all this work and hustle but still go nowhere. Another form of discouragement that occurs against women sportscasters is the limitation of what sports women can cover. Frequently, horror stories are heard that female sportscaster or beat writers are only allowed to cover female sports. Not saying that there’s anything wrong with female sports because

The Expenditure Of Education Has Risen Essay - 2254 Words

ensive. The expenditure of education has risen so that students do not have enough money to cover their studies which prevent them from completely attending school. Many students have to work in order to meet their financial needs to pay for college. The cost of living has increased which force students to find a job while in college. Also, over the years the graduation of college students is decreasing substantially. Moreover, many of students drop out from college because the financial burden. Some students need to work to support their families too. Today, your GPA is linked to our educational performance and numbers are now used to measure ability or academic achievement without taking into account the collateral activities that could affect the learning outcome. For example, working students may have less time to devote to their studies because they need the income to meet their needs. Many factors interfere with students school performance such as working, time management, str ess, and lack of financial support. In the current economic system, there are economic positions that favor few; therefore those who are not favored by the system must work to achieve their educational objectives in the university (Douglass, and Thomson, 2012). According to Perna (2010) many college students are engaged in a job and working many hours. Statistics shows that 80 percent of students between 16 and 24 years old worked while enroll in college (National Center for EducationShow MoreRelatedHow Gross Domestic Product ( Gdp ) Is Calculated1444 Words   |  6 Pagesbe calculated in three ways, Income, expenditure and output methods. 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Food Labeling Revision Of The Nutrition And Diet Facts...

Before revealing the details about the rule, an overview of the memo will be provided. This memo will describe the rule â€Å"Food Labeling: Revision of the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels†, which was proposed by the Food and Drug Administration. The memo will be broken down into three different paragraphs. The first major point of the memo will be the background and the summary of the rule. The second point will be about the industries impacted by this rule and other important information about it, such as the most important changes of the rule. The third point will be an extended discussion of what affected companies/industries will have to do should this rule go into effect. Such allocation of the information will help to better understand the main points of the rule and how does it affect many companies. POINT #1: Summary of the new â€Å"Food Labeling† rule The 1990 amendments added a section to the FD and C Act, which says that food is considered misbranded unless its label has nutrition information for certain nutrients. To accomplish the 1990 amendments, FDA made some rules, which includes â€Å"Food Labeling: Mandatory Status of Nutrition Labeling and Nutrient Content Revision, Format for Nutrition Label† to modify how food should be labeled and what information should be presented on it. FDA published regulations for this rule, which were composed of how the food should be labeled and which nutrients and other important information should be displayed on the label. InShow MoreRelatedFood Labeling : Revision Of The Nutrition And Diet Facts Labels887 Words   |  4 PagesThis memo will summarize the rule â€Å"Food Labeling: Revision of the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels†, which was proposed by the Food and Drug Administration. 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Sdfsd Free Essays

Works such as ‘Plan’ by Jenny Seville and ‘La Primeval’ by Sandra Bottling, despite being from distinctly different time periods, are influenced by the social climate of the time and place in which they emerged. Whist Bottling inhabits a world influenced strongly by Pagan beliefs, Seville inhabits a secular world that is influenced mainly by media, hence their subject matter, the nude figure, are portrayed differently. Plan’, a n OLL painting on canvas by Jenny Seville, Is a work dominated by the nude female figure who looks down toward her feet, and the viewer. We will write a custom essay sample on Sdfsd or any similar topic only for you Order Now The figure, who Is clearly the subject matter, is positioned so that it appears the viewer rests upon her quads. The figure Is depicted in ‘hues of mottled creams’, her skin, as well as mauves and purples, alluding to lumpy textures, perhaps cellulite or bruises, but undeniably; flaws. The paint appears to be applied relatively quickly, in a wet on wet application, evident In the colors being somewhat convoluted, but not completely blended Into en smooth and consistent color, rather blotchy mixes. The subject matter, the nude figure Is well built, and her stomach and thighs are covered In line reminiscent of a topographical map, or perhaps lines that a surgeon would use in surgery. Line is a dominant element in this work. Controlled and organic lines track and highlight the voluptuous forms of the curvaceous figure, much like a topographical map would display peaks, spurs and valleys. The proportion of the female nude’s body is exaggerated by the perspective taken by Seville, making her appear very large, her thighs and stomach especially focused on. The composition Is also confronting with the pubic region, which Is often considered unsightly In today’s society Is nearly central to the picture plane, unavoidable by the viewers eye. The figure also takes up the majority of the work, dominating roughly two thirds of the work. This visual weight, the figure dominating the work, is reminiscent of the physical weight of the figure. The figure dominating the work almost forces the viewer to examine an image that might be considered as grotesque and flaw, confronting the viewer. Seville paints In a traditional and realistic style, depicting the subject matter, the female due, with a degree of realism. Seville inhabits a modern, secular world, so unlike figure painters before her, her paintings are not influenced by religious values. Rather, Seville is influenced by social media; the bombardment of images and ideas surrounding the perfect female figure, that plagues many women of today. Seville works with the idea that women are funneled into a mindset that they have to look a particular way; slim. Hence, her works optimize ‘heavily flagged feminist Ideology, as she exposed and De-constructs perceived beauty. Her work plan Is considered grotesque’ by many viewers, and this is the re-action that she desires. Her works provoke questions such as why do you consider this work as grotesque? As Seville works with what are dubbed to be flaws’, and paints to antipode to what is perceived to be the ideal figure. Alike to Propped’, ‘Plan’ has a element of graffiti, with the figure appearing to have been scribbled onto with lines reminiscent of ‘geographical rather ‘(cut) into the paint’, hence evoking the idea of surgery. Thus, these lines serve to represent what we classify as imperfections, things we wish to remove in order to attain idealistic beauty. Seville is skeptical of the way that beauty is portrayed, especially critical of the male fantasy of what the female body is’, as plan is the exact opposite of this fantasy. Plan’ has emphasized aspects of the female figure that would be considered flaws’; the pubic hair region and a voluptuous figure, and highlights our aggressive and negative attitude toward these by drawing over them. With ‘Plan’ Seville collapses the three spaces of studio, artist and model, rather than a ‘one way transaction’ where artist will pay a figure to do a sitting. Seville works redundantly from her own body, using several angled mirrors so that she can refer to herself and the painting whilst she works, as ‘self examination’ (Seville). Seville refers to that way in which she paints as ‘really fast’ and ‘kind of aggressively, using thick, and chisel brushes to create large areas of skin. This is evident in the texture of the skin being quite dappled, with a lumpy, even bruised appearance, rather than a smooth and consistent texture. The Wet on wet’ application of oil paint is particularly evident in the figures analogous skin tones being dragged through one and other, reading a varied colored surface, rather than a smooth and consistent one. Contrastingly Photocell’s tempura on board work, ‘La Primeval’ (or Allegory of Spring), painted in in 1482 involved much meretricious techniques. Firstly, Photocell would have sketched the figures onto the boar, before beginning the painting. Due to the paint pigments limited availability in the 1 5th century, having to be shipped from places such as Northern Africa, they are very expensive. Hence, Photocell, as not to waste paint would have only mixed small amounts at a time, thus painted small sections of the painting at a time. Renaissance style. ** The work consists of 9 figures including two zephyrs, with Venus being the central figure, against the forest setting. The figure’s, in comparison to the lumpy dappled texture of Saukville nude in ‘Plan’, is very smooth, blended until very consistent, of a porcelain white color. The idealistic portray of the figures is typical in the Renaissance period, as the figures would have been associated with Pagan beliefs, hence had to be desirable. The composition of the work makes Venus very much the central figure in the work. All other figures are touching one another, or are cropped, arterially obscured by the border, whereas Venus stands clearly alone, separate, borders by dark methyl leaves which contrast against her pale, white-pearl colored skin. Additionally, Venus is situated centrally, with respect to hospital and vertical axis’s, whereas the other figures are situated predominantly in the lower 2 thirds of the work. Hence, dominance and emphasis is given to Venus, above the others, as if a revered figure, reigning over the land. The work was created as a commission for the Medici family, likely created as a celebration for the wedding between Lorenz Medici ND Semiarid Piano which took place in May 1482. Created in Renaissance Italy, in the 1 5th century, â€Å"La Primeval† is clearly influenced by Pagan beliefs, which influenced society heavily in that time, evident in the characters and themes in the work. Thus, the central theme of the work is one of love and marriage and a message that when they occur in the ‘correct’ order they bring forth sensuality and fertility. Situated leftmost in the work is Mercury (or Hermes in Greek Mythology), messenger beauty and love. Their long flowing coverings area characteristic of Photocell’s painting style. The viewer sees an older version of Venus in â€Å"La Primeval†, as opposed to the young Venus depicted in Botulism’s â€Å"Birth of Venus†, who is now depicted fully clothed and matured. To Venue’s right is Flora, God of Flowers, and to her right Chloride who is raped by Zephyrs, the figure to her right, who rapes her, and as an expression of his remorse, renames her Flora, God of Flowers. Venus is surrounded by the Merely plant, which typically represents sexual desire, marriage and child-bearing. Oranges are used in the trees above as a symbol of wealth, much like they are used in Jan Van Cock’s ‘Arnold Portrait’. Interestingly there are no oranges about nymph, Chloride and Zephyrs, which suggests corruption and dies- approval of Zephyr’s actions. Cupid, Venue’s son, is situated directly above Venus and is derived from ancient art, and is armed with a bow and arrow, taking aim at the love struck three Graces. The flowers in the trees are painted with the kind of meticulous detail evident in International Gothic Style. Of the 190 different flower species identified in the work, they emphasis ideas such as love, fertility, beauty and re-birth. Unlike Seville, Bottling lives in a world centered around religion, a belief system; Paganism. Hence, the work is a narrative that is based on Pagan stories, such that of nymph Chloride becoming Flora. Additionally, this work being a commission, and the Medici would have been Pagan; this work would have had to have been relevant for them, as it would likely have been situated in their home. But today, that there are a variety of dominating religions, rather than Just one, and they do not dictate the way that we live, unlike in Italy in the 15th century. Botulism’s gender as a man means that the work is quite subjective, as he represents female figures as idealistic figures of desire. In contrast, Seville deconstructs this type of ideal; the way that women should look a particular way; skinny. Bottling portrays women, the subject matter, as desirable, whereas Seville, in antipode depicts a voluptuous figure, that could be regarded as flawed’ or ‘grotesque’ due to her curvy body shape. Seville and Bottling paint at a vastly different pace, with Seville painting ‘aggressively, quickly applying oil to the canvas, not even waiting for it to dry, whereas Bottling paints with meticulous detail, hence it takes him a long time. Composition is a key principle in both works, although, due to the amount of detail and amount of figures, Botulism’s ‘La Primeval’ is more complex. Seville places the figure centrally in the work, so that she is unavoidable to the viewer; confronting, and dominating, in the way that she figure takes up roughly 70 percent of the canvas. The viewer is confronted with what might be perceived as flaws’. The viewer’s eye is drawn past all these flaws; by the line of the gap between the figures meaty thighs, then the UN avoidable the pubic region being close to the centre of the work, the viewer’s eye being drawn up past other flaws’ such as the stomach and arms, to the face. Bottling utilizes composition in a different way, in that he creates emphasis on Venus. He does this by making her the sole figure that is not cropped or obscured from view by the border or making contact with another figure, making her disparate from the rest of the figures. He also places her centrally along the horizontal and vertical thirds of the work, and having dark merely plants surround her, as they contrast against her pale skin; thus emphasizing her. Both artists utilize color by using it to depict the subject matter, a greater range of color, as to depict the figures as clothed and also to create the background in great detail. How to cite Sdfsd, Papers

Marxism and Pluralism Views on Media free essay sample

The mass media is an extremely integral part of society as it consumes and influences our everyday lives, whether we are conscious of it or not. Whether it is through the Internet, television, newspapers, advertisements or the radio, we are constantly bombarded by mass media. As Burton observes, the main power of the media lies in the fact that it can shape what we know about the world and can be a main source of ideas and opinions (2002:2). As the media continues to compel such power over socialisation, many researchers have set out to perceive the power of the mass media (Curran, Gurevitch, Woollacott 2006:1). This essay will discuss these theories, namely the liberal-pluralist and Marxist approaches as well as the role of media in society according to these approaches. Marxism takes the view that media has an undisputable influence over society and that this helps preserve differences of power between social groups based on class, race and gender. (Burton, 2002:48). The Marxist approach stresses the power of the media to control people in society, based on the ‘base-superstructure’ model in Marxist thought. (Marsh amp; Melville, 2008:27). The base-superstructure model is made up of a base, being an economic base or infrastructure which provides the basic needs of life and the super structure, which comprises of the rest of society, including ones family and education system, as well as the mass media. (Marsh, etal, 2008:27) The base, which entails all aspects of the material world, comes first, and the superstructure depends on this economic base. Marsh, etal, 2008:27) In terms of the media, the Marxist theorists would emphasise the power of the economy to determine the content of the media, and thereby, to influence public agendas. (Marsh, etal, 2008:27) The Frankfurt school, was comprised of left-leaning, Marxist- influenced intellectuals, namely, Adorno, Horkheimer, Benjamin and Marcuse, these learners believed that mass popular culture was sapping creative thinking, reducing individual freedom and promoting false wants through consumerism. Williams, 2001:27) It was not until the 1960’s that the scholars of The Frankfurt School’s work and ideas become widely disseminated (Williams, 2001: 27). They identified with various forms of high culture such as symphony music, high art and literature as having innate value. (Williams, 2001:27). They were critical of mass media and much of their writing focused on mass media in the face of high culture (Williams, 2001: 27). They were skeptical that high culture could be reproduced by mass media. (Williams, 2001:27). For instance, as Adorno argued, neither radio, nor records could reproduce the authentic sound and experience of hearing a live orchestra (Williams, 2001:27). ‘Cultural Industries’-which referred to the role of mass culture shaping the individual in mass society, became an important term in cultural studies in the post-war period. (Williams, 2007:27). Herbert Marcusse argued that Capitalism was responsible for the creation of false needs, false consciousness and mass culture, which enslaved working people. (Williams, 2001:27). This is consistent with Marx’s theory, according to Marx, the capitalist class control the ‘production and distribution of ideas’ because of their control of the ‘means of material production’ (Williams, 2001:37) The Political Economy Approach is rooted in the Marxist theory, which focuses primarily on the relationship between the economic structure and dynamics of media industries and the ideological content of media (Mcquail, 2010:96). In other words, the media is considered part of the economic system, with close links to the political system (Mcquail, 2010:96). The Political Economy Approach suggests that the primary product of the media is really audience (Mcquail, 2010:96). This refers to the media having the primary intention to shape the behaviour of the public in certain and distinctive ways (Mcquail, 2010:96). For instance, let’s look at the Internet in terms of the Political Economy Approach. (Fuchs, 2009) explains that the key to the Internet economy lies especially in the commodification of the users of free access platforms, which deliver targets for advertisers and publicists as well as often providing the content at no cost to network providers and site-owners. Lastly, the Marxists were concerned about the effects that the mass media had on the audience. Media’s influence can be evaluated from an essentially ideological standpoint; it propounds the view that the media can be compared to a â€Å"hypodermic needle†, because it has the power to ‘inject’ a repressive ideology directly into the consciousness of the masses (Morley, 1980:1). However, ironically, Marxist and critical commentators have also argued that he mass media play a strategic role in reinforcing dominant social norms and values that legitimise the social system. (Curran ,etal, 2006:14). Marcuse suggested that we greatly overrate the indoctrinating power of the media. For instance, voting, some Marxists claim that media portrayals of elections constitute dramatized rituals that legitimise the power structure in liberal democracies, voting is seen as an ideology that helps to sustain the myth of representative democracy, political equality and collect ive self determination (Curran,etal, 2006:14). However, pioneering studies into the effects of the media on voting behaviour by McQuail (1961) concluded that the media had only a marginal influence in changing the way in which people voted. In contrast to the Marxists, who saw the media as mouthpieces for the ruling classes, free press theory highlights the independent role of the media in society in terms of the Liberalist approach (Williams, 2001:38). ‘Freedom of the press’ is a concept, which has a long and distinguished history (Williams, 2001:38). The theoretical approach to this theory can be found in John Milton’s book, Areopagatica, which was published in 1644. Milton opposed state restrictions on freedom of expression on the grounds that God has blessed individual men and woman with the faculty of reason, which allowed them to read and enabled them, according to their conscience to make choices of good and evil. (Williams, 2001:39). As Keane adds, the virtue of the individual must be developed and tested continually by engaging contrary opinions and experiences (1991:12). The theory of utilitarianism developed another argument for the free expression of press and public opinion (Williams, 2001:39). Philosophers such as Jeremy Bentham and James Mill believed the smooth operation for the political system depended on the free expression of public opinion, it was necessary for ‘good governance’. The liberalist approach sees society as a dynamic system that continuously strives for unity and harmony, for cohesion and stability. (McQuail, 2005: 168) According to the liberal democratic theory, the media play a crucial role, as channels of communication, as channels of information and communication, between social groups, by stimulating collective debate, by stimulating collective debate, by fostering social integration, by facilitating the ‘normal’ functioning of society. (McQuail, 2005: 167) Providing that they are free and independent institutions, the media will reflect and represent all the important views circulating and competing interests present within society. In doing so, they will respond to changing social circumstances and adapt the shifting relations of power (McQuail, 2005: 167). There is a thesis within the Liberalist approach that considers the media to be a mirror of reality (McQuail, 2005: 168). This is underscored within the approach with three main concepts, the emphasis of popular control over the media, the importance of professional mediation as well as seeing the media as an autonomous form of power structure over society (Curran, 1996:138). Autonomy within the media consists of the independence of the state, political and economic interests as well the journalist’s autonomy and self-willingness within media organisations. (Mcquail, 2005:168). For instance, only when a journalist serves accurate and objective reporting of news and events the wider public interest will be served (Mcquail, 2005:168). In contrast, even excessive control of the media by its proprietors and the potential abuse of their power for personal, political or ideological ends will eventually be diminished, most notably by the consumer’s authority. Mcquail, 2005:168). The history of the Liberalist approach dates back to the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, and understanding this history is an integral part of understanding the relationship between media and society (McQuail, 2005:168). Within this period of time, the Liberalist theories dominated the way in which the media was traditionally conceived, in terms of the political system and the way which media contributed to the way society functioned democratically (McQuail, 2005:168). It is with the rise of rationalism, liberalism and new ideas on nature old man, the relationship between the individual and the state, and intellectual and economic freedom that the common conception of the â€Å"free market place of ideas† are rooted. With the Liberalist approach, comes much tension. Where the Liberalist’s were concerned with utilitarianism in media, James Mills was concerned that the democratic form of government gave rise to â€Å"tyranny of the majority† (Bennet: 33). Mills was concerned that with utilitarianism, people lose their individuality and identity and was concerned with social homogenisation where the line marking the differences between classes, regions and professions becomes blurred. (Bennet: 33) The reason these differences have become blurred is because there is popular education, which results in a tendency in moral and intellectual uniformity. As a result, rather than being viewed as vehicles of enlightenment, popular education and the press are regarded as reducing intelligence to the level of the lowest common denominator. Bennet: 34) In conclusion, this essay has attempted to discuss the Marxist and Liberalist view of the media and the contrast thereof. The Marxist approach perceives the audience as vulnerable and easily susceptible to propaganda. Marxists were sceptical of mass media, as they believed it had the ability to reproduce high culture and therefore diminish its exclusivity and tendency to be elite. In contrast, the Liberalists were in favour of mass media, as they believed it had the power to encourage utilitarianism and therefore harmony. Media encourages liberalisation and rationalism and therefore a ‘harmonious’ relationship between the public and their state. Although the debate on mass media and its effects and influence on the public still remains and the matter of each approach is still relevant today, the media is an extremely broad and integral component of society.